American Government

What the Exam Tests

The CLEP American Government exam covers material typically taught in a one-semester introductory college course in U.S. government and politics. It tests knowledge of the constitutional framework, institutions of government, political parties and behavior, civil liberties, and public policy processes.

Content Area Breakdown

• Institutions & Policy Processes (Congress, Presidency, Bureaucracy, Courts) — ~55%
• Political Beliefs & Behaviors — ~10–15%
• Political Parties, Interest Groups & Mass Media — ~10–15%
• Constitutional Underpinnings & Federalism — ~10–15%
• Civil Liberties & Civil Rights — ~10–15%

From Articles of Confederation to Constitution

The Articles of Confederation (1781–1789) created a weak central government: no power to tax, no power to regulate commerce, no executive or judiciary, unanimous consent required to amend. Shays' Rebellion (1786–87) — a debt crisis uprising in Massachusetts — exposed these weaknesses and convinced leaders a stronger national government was needed.

The Constitutional Convention (Philadelphia, 1787) was called to revise the Articles but instead drafted an entirely new Constitution. Key delegates: James Madison ("Father of the Constitution"), Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, George Washington (presiding officer). Thomas Jefferson and John Adams were absent (serving abroad).

Key Constitutional Compromises

• Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise) — bicameral legislature: House (population-based) + Senate (equal representation, 2 per state)
• Three-Fifths Compromise — enslaved persons counted as 3/5 of a person for apportionment and taxation
• Electoral College — indirect election of president; compromise between congressional selection and direct popular vote
• Slave trade compromise — Congress could not ban slave importation until 1808

Core Constitutional Principles

• Separation of powers — legislative, executive, judicial branches each have distinct powers; prevents tyranny
• Checks and balances — each branch can limit the others: Congress overrides veto, Senate confirms appointments, courts review laws, president vetoes legislation
• Federalism — power divided between national and state governments (see next section)
• Judicial review — courts can declare laws unconstitutional; established in Marbury v. Madison (1803) by Chief Justice John Marshall; NOT explicitly in Constitution
• Popular sovereignty — government authority derives from the people
• Limited government — government power restricted by law; Bill of Rights enumerates specific protections
• Rule of law — everyone, including government officials, is subject to the law

Ratification & The Federalist Papers

Ratification required 9 of 13 states. Two factions emerged: Federalists (supported Constitution — Hamilton, Madison, Jay) vs. Anti-Federalists (feared strong central government, wanted Bill of Rights — Patrick Henry, George Mason).

The Federalist Papers (85 essays, 1787–88) argued for ratification. Key essays: Federalist No. 10 (Madison — factions/pluralism; large republic controls factions better than small ones), Federalist No. 51 (Madison — checks and balances; "ambition must be made to counteract ambition"), Federalist No. 78 (Hamilton — judiciary; lifetime tenure ensures judicial independence).

Amending the Constitution

• Proposal: 2/3 vote of both houses of Congress OR constitutional convention called by 2/3 of state legislatures
• Ratification: 3/4 of state legislatures (38 states) OR 3/4 of state ratifying conventions
• 27 amendments total; first 10 = Bill of Rights (ratified 1791)
• Informal amendment: presidential practice, judicial interpretation, congressional legislation, and political custom also shape constitutional meaning

Types of Government Power

• Enumerated (expressed) powers — powers explicitly granted to Congress in Article I, Section 8 (tax, borrow money, regulate commerce, declare war, raise army, coin money, establish post offices)
• Implied powers — powers reasonably inferred from enumerated powers; basis is the Necessary and Proper Clause ("elastic clause") — Art. I, Sec. 8
• Inherent powers — powers that belong to national government by virtue of being a sovereign nation (e.g., conduct foreign affairs)
• Reserved powers — powers not delegated to federal government belong to states or people (10th Amendment); police powers (health, safety, morals, welfare)
• Concurrent powers — shared by national and state governments (tax, borrow, establish courts, charter banks)
• Denied powers — powers prohibited to federal government (e.g., no bill of attainder, no ex post facto laws) or states (e.g., no treaties, no coining money)

Supremacy & Key Clauses

• Supremacy Clause (Art. VI) — Constitution and federal law are "the supreme law of the land"; state laws that conflict with federal law are void
• Commerce Clause (Art. I, Sec. 8) — Congress may regulate interstate commerce; dramatically expanded federal power in 20th century
• Full Faith and Credit Clause (Art. IV) — states must honor other states' legal acts (marriages, court judgments, contracts)
• Privileges and Immunities Clause — states cannot discriminate against citizens of other states in fundamental rights
• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) — upheld implied powers and Supremacy Clause; Maryland could not tax the national bank; established broad federal power
• Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) — broad interpretation of Commerce Clause; federal government controls interstate navigation/commerce

Evolution of Federalism

• Dual federalism ("layer cake") — 1789–1930s; national and state governments operate in separate, distinct spheres; states sovereign in their domain
• Cooperative federalism ("marble cake") — 1930s–1960s; New Deal era; national and state governments cooperate on shared programs; federal grants-in-aid expand national influence
• Creative/coercive federalism — 1960s–80s; Great Society; explosion of federal categorical grants with conditions; federal mandates on states
• New Federalism — Nixon/Reagan era; shift power back to states; block grants (broader, fewer strings) replace categorical grants; devolution
• Fiscal federalism — use of federal grants to shape state policy; grants come with conditions; unfunded mandates require state action without federal funding

Interstate Relations

• Interstate compacts — agreements between states; must have Congressional approval for significant compacts
• Extradition — states must return fugitives to states where crimes were committed (Art. IV)
• Full faith and credit — states recognize other states' legal proceedings

Structure of Congress

Congressional Leadership

• Speaker of the House — elected by House majority; sets agenda, assigns bills to committees, controls floor schedule; 2nd in presidential succession
• Majority/Minority Leaders — floor leaders in both chambers; organize party strategy
• Whips — count votes, pressure members to support party position
• Senate Majority Leader — most powerful Senate leader; controls floor schedule and agenda

The Committee System

Most legislative work is done in committees — the "little legislatures" of Congress.

• Standing committees — permanent; organized by policy area (Armed Services, Finance, Judiciary); most important type
• Select/special committees — temporary; created for specific investigation (e.g., Watergate, January 6)
• Joint committees — members from both chambers; coordinate and study policy
• Conference committees — reconcile House and Senate versions of the same bill; critical step in lawmaking
• Committee chair — controls agenda, scheduling, staff; historically assigned by seniority; now by party vote
• Seniority system — historically, most senior member of majority party became chair; still influential though weakened

How a Bill Becomes a Law

1. Bill introduced in either chamber (revenue bills must start in House)
2. Referred to relevant standing committee → subcommittee markup
3. Full committee vote; if passed, goes to floor
4. House: Rules Committee sets debate terms; Senate: unanimous consent or cloture vote
5. Floor debate and vote; simple majority required
6. Other chamber repeats process; if different versions pass, conference committee reconciles
7. Both chambers pass identical bill → sent to President
8. President: sign (law), veto (returns to Congress), pocket veto (Congress adjourns within 10 days), or do nothing (becomes law after 10 days if Congress in session)
9. Congress can override veto with 2/3 vote of both chambers

Congressional Powers & Behavior

• Power of the purse — Congress controls all appropriations; no money can be spent without congressional authorization
• Oversight — monitoring executive branch implementation of laws; hearings, investigations, GAO audits
• Casework — helping constituents with government problems; critical for reelection
• Pork barrel / earmarks — spending for specific local projects inserted into larger bills; benefits members' districts
• Logrolling — trading votes ("I'll vote for your bill if you vote for mine")
• Franking privilege — members can mail official communications to constituents free of charge
• Incumbency advantage — sitting members win reelection at very high rates (~90%+); name recognition, casework, fundraising advantage
• Gerrymandering — drawing district lines to favor one party; partisan vs. racial gerrymandering; Voting Rights Act limits racial gerrymandering

Constitutional Requirements & Term

• Must be natural-born citizen, at least 35 years old, resident for 14 years
• 4-year term; limited to 2 terms by the 22nd Amendment (1951) — passed after FDR's four terms
• Presidential succession: VP → Speaker of the House → President pro tempore of Senate → Cabinet (Secretary of State first)
• 25th Amendment — procedures for presidential disability and VP vacancy; VP + Cabinet majority can declare president unable to serve

Presidential Powers

• Commander in Chief — leads armed forces; can deploy troops without declaration of war; limited by War Powers Resolution (1973) — must notify Congress within 48 hours, troops must be withdrawn in 60 days without Congressional authorization
• Treaty power — negotiates treaties; requires Senate ratification by 2/3 vote; executive agreements bypass Senate and have same force as treaties
• Appointment power — nominates federal judges, Cabinet, ambassadors, agency heads; Senate confirms (simple majority for most; historically 60 for Supreme Court but "nuclear option" eliminated this in 2017)
• Veto — rejects legislation; Congress can override with 2/3 of both chambers
• Pardon power — can pardon federal offenses; absolute; cannot be overridden; does not apply to impeachment or state crimes
• Executive orders — directives to executive agencies; have force of law; can be reversed by successor or struck down by courts
• State of the Union — Constitutional requirement to report to Congress "from time to time"

Sources of Presidential Power

• Formal (Constitutional) — enumerated powers in Article II
• Informal powers — going public (appealing directly to voters), media access, party leadership, executive privilege
• Executive privilege — claim that presidential communications are confidential; recognized but not absolute — United States v. Nixon (1974) ruled tapes must be released
• Stewardship theory (Theodore Roosevelt) — president can do anything not explicitly forbidden; expansive view
• Whig theory (Taft) — president limited to powers explicitly granted; restrictive view
• Neustadt's "power to persuade" — president's real power is ability to bargain and persuade Congress, public, and allies

The Executive Office & Cabinet

• Executive Office of the President (EOP) — White House staff, National Security Council, Office of Management and Budget (OMB), Council of Economic Advisers; closest advisers to president
• White House Staff — Chief of Staff, press secretary, senior advisers; serve at president's pleasure; not confirmed by Senate
• Cabinet — 15 department heads (secretaries) plus VP; formally advise president; Senate-confirmed; heads of major departments (State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, etc.)
• National Security Council (NSC) — president, VP, Secretaries of State and Defense, National Security Adviser; coordinates foreign and defense policy
• OMB — prepares presidential budget; reviews agency regulations; most powerful EOP agency

Impeachment

• Grounds: "treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors"
• House impeaches (charges) by simple majority
• Senate tries and convicts; requires 2/3 vote to remove
• Presidents impeached: Andrew Johnson (1868), Bill Clinton (1998), Donald Trump (2019 and 2021) — all acquitted by Senate
• Richard Nixon resigned before certain impeachment (1974)
• Impeachment also applies to VP, federal judges, and other civil officers

The Federal Bureaucracy

• ~2 million civilian federal employees; implements laws passed by Congress
• Cabinet departments — 15 major departments (e.g., State, Defense, Treasury, Education, Homeland Security); headed by Senate-confirmed secretaries
• Independent agencies — outside Cabinet (NASA, CIA, EPA); narrower mission
• Independent regulatory commissions — regulate specific sectors; members have fixed terms, can only be removed for cause; bipartisan (FCC, FEC, FRB, SEC, NLRB); insulated from presidential control
• Government corporations — business-like entities providing services (USPS, Amtrak, TVA)
• Civil service system — merit-based hiring; Pendleton Civil Service Act (1883) replaced spoils system; most federal workers protected from political firing
• Spoils system (patronage) — "to the victor go the spoils"; presidents rewarded supporters with jobs; Garfield assassination (1881) by disappointed office-seeker led to reform

Bureaucratic Policymaking

• Rulemaking (administrative legislation) — agencies write rules implementing laws; published in Federal Register; have force of law
• Adjudication — agencies settle disputes about regulations; Administrative Law Judges (ALJs)
• Delegation of authority — Congress delegates broad authority to agencies; creates "fourth branch" problem of accountability
• Iron triangle — mutually beneficial relationship among agency, congressional committee, and interest group; resistant to change
• Issue networks — broader, more fluid coalitions of policy experts, interest groups, and officials; replaced iron triangle model in many areas
• Congressional oversight — committees oversee agencies through hearings, budget control, and appointment confirmation

The Federal Court System

• District courts — 94 federal trial courts; original jurisdiction; where facts are established and trials held
• Courts of Appeals (Circuit Courts) — 13 circuits; review district court decisions; no new facts, only legal questions; decisions are binding in their circuit
• Supreme Court — 9 justices; mostly appellate jurisdiction; original jurisdiction in cases involving states or foreign diplomats; decisions are binding on all U.S. courts
• Judicial appointments — all Article III judges nominated by president, confirmed by Senate; lifetime tenure ("during good behavior") ensures independence
• Writ of certiorari — Supreme Court order to lower court to send up records; "cert" granted by "rule of four" (4 of 9 justices agree to hear case)
• Jurisdiction types — original (first to hear case) vs. appellate (reviews lower court); exclusive (only federal) vs. concurrent (state or federal)

The Supreme Court

• Hears ~70–80 cases per year from ~7,000–8,000 petitions
• Majority opinion — binding law; written by justice assigned by Chief Justice if in majority, or most senior justice in majority
• Concurring opinion — agrees with result but different reasoning
• Dissenting opinion — disagrees with result; not binding but may influence future cases
• Judicial review — power to declare laws unconstitutional; established in Marbury v. Madison (1803)
• Strict constructionism — interpret Constitution based on original text/intent; loose constructionism — interpret broadly based on evolving meaning
• Stare decisis — "let the decision stand"; courts generally follow precedent (prior decisions)
• Judicial activism — courts willing to overturn precedent/laws; judicial restraint — deference to elected branches

Political Parties

• Functions — recruit/nominate candidates, mobilize voters, organize government, simplify choices for voters, link voters to government
• Two-party system — U.S. has historically had two dominant parties; reinforced by winner-take-all / plurality voting (single-member districts), ballot access laws, and campaign finance rules
• Party identification — psychological attachment to a party; strongest predictor of voting behavior
• Dealignment — weakening of party loyalties; rise of independents; realignment — major, lasting shift in party coalitions (e.g., 1932 New Deal coalition, 1960s–80s Southern realignment)
• Party organization — national committee, congressional campaign committees, state/local organizations; decentralized; candidates increasingly run their own campaigns
• Third parties — rarely win elections; play "spoiler" role; raise issues; occasionally elected at state/local level; Libertarian, Green, Reform parties

The Electoral Process

• Primary elections — choose party nominees; closed primary (only registered party members vote), open primary (any voter may participate), blanket/jungle primary (all candidates on same ballot, top 2 advance)
• Caucus — local party meetings to choose delegates; more participatory but lower turnout than primaries; Iowa caucus historically first
• National party conventions — formally nominate president and VP; adopt party platform; mostly ceremonial since primaries decide nominee
• General election — held first Tuesday after first Monday in November of even-numbered years
• Electoral College — 538 total; 270 needed to win; each state = # House seats + 2 senators; D.C. gets 3 (23rd Amendment); winner-take-all in 48 states; if no majority, House chooses president (state delegation each gets one vote)

Campaign Finance

• Federal Election Commission (FEC) — independent agency; regulates campaign finance; enforces disclosure and contribution limits
• Hard money — direct contributions to candidates; regulated; limits apply
• Soft money — contributions to parties for "party building"; unregulated until Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA / McCain-Feingold, 2002) banned unlimited soft money to national parties
• PACs (Political Action Committees) — raise and spend money on behalf of candidates; contribution limits apply
• Super PACs — created after Citizens United v. FEC (2010); can raise and spend unlimited money; cannot coordinate directly with campaigns; must disclose donors
• Citizens United v. FEC (2010) — corporations and unions have First Amendment right to spend unlimited amounts on independent political speech; transformed campaign finance

Voting Behavior

• Party identification — strongest single predictor of vote choice
• Candidate characteristics — incumbency, personality, perceived competence
• Issues — retrospective voting (how has the country done?); prospective voting (whose policies do I prefer?)
• Sociodemographic factors — income, education, race/ethnicity, religion, age, gender all correlate with party preference
• Voter turnout — U.S. lower than most democracies (~55–60% presidential, ~40% midterm); barriers: registration requirements, weekday elections, frequency of elections
• Motor Voter Act (1993) — allowed voter registration at DMV and other agencies; increased registration rolls
• Voting Rights Act (1965) — prohibited racial discrimination in voting; literacy tests banned; federal oversight of states with history of discrimination

Interest Groups

• Interest group — organized group of people sharing common goals that tries to influence government policy
• Types: economic (business — Chamber of Commerce, NFIB; labor — AFL-CIO; agriculture — Farm Bureau), public interest (ACLU, NAACP, Sierra Club), single-issue (NRA, NARAL), professional associations (AMA, ABA)
• Lobbying — direct contact with government officials to influence legislation or regulation; professional lobbyists must register under Lobbying Disclosure Act
• Inside lobbying — direct contact with legislators and staff; testifying at hearings; drafting legislation
• Outside lobbying — mobilizing public pressure; grassroots campaigns; campaign contributions; advertising
• Revolving door — movement of individuals between government positions and lobbying/private sector jobs; creates relationships and expertise that benefit lobbying
• Collective action problem — individuals have incentive to free-ride on group efforts; solved by selective benefits (only members get benefits)
• Pluralism — competition among many interest groups produces roughly balanced policy outcomes; elite theory — wealthy, powerful groups dominate; hyperpluralism — too many competing groups gridlock government

Mass Media & Politics

• Media functions — informing public, agenda-setting, watchdog/investigative role, socialization, providing forum for debate
• Agenda setting — media doesn't tell people what to think, but tells them what to think about; issues covered get public attention
• Framing — how media presents an issue shapes how audiences interpret it
• Priming — media coverage of certain issues raises their salience when evaluating politicians
• Horse-race journalism — focus on who's winning and polling rather than policy substance
• Press conferences & leaks — executive branch manages media access; leaks provide unofficial information to press
• Social media — direct communication bypassing traditional media gatekeepers; enables microtargeting; spreads misinformation rapidly
• Media consolidation — fewer corporations own more outlets; concern about diversity of viewpoints
• First Amendment protection — press freedom; Near v. Minnesota (1931) — no prior restraint; New York Times v. United States (1971, Pentagon Papers) — government cannot suppress publication of classified material without showing direct, immediate harm

The Bill of Rights & Incorporation

The Bill of Rights (first 10 amendments, ratified 1791) originally applied only to the federal government (Barron v. Baltimore, 1833). The 14th Amendment (1868) — due process and equal protection clauses — provided the basis for applying Bill of Rights to states through selective incorporation (case by case via the Supreme Court).

First Amendment: Speech, Press, Religion, Assembly

• Free speech — very broad protection; government cannot punish speech based on content (content-neutral rules on time/place/manner OK)
• Unprotected speech: incitement to imminent lawless action (Brandenburg v. Ohio, 1969), true threats, obscenity (Miller v. California, 1973 — 3-part test), defamation (false statements of fact), child pornography, "fighting words"
• Symbolic speech — protected: flag burning (Texas v. Johnson, 1989), armbands, draft card burning NOT protected (U.S. v. O'Brien)
• Prior restraint — government cannot censor speech before publication; near-absolute prohibition (Near v. Minnesota, 1931)
• Freedom of press — broad protection; New York Times v. Sullivan (1964) — public figures must prove actual malice to win defamation suit
• Establishment Clause — government cannot establish religion; Lemon v. Kurtzman (1971) — Lemon test: secular purpose, neither advances nor inhibits religion, no excessive entanglement; Engel v. Vitale (1962) — no school-sponsored prayer
• Free Exercise Clause — government cannot prohibit religious practice; Employment Division v. Smith (1990) — neutral, generally applicable laws that incidentally burden religion are constitutional; Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) provides heightened protection

Second Amendment & Right to Bear Arms

• District of Columbia v. Heller (2008) — Second Amendment protects individual right to keep handgun at home for self-defense; not limited to militia service
• McDonald v. Chicago (2010) — incorporated Second Amendment against the states
• Reasonable regulations (background checks, licensing, restrictions on felons) remain constitutional

Rights of the Accused (4th, 5th, 6th, 8th Amendments)

• 4th Amendment — unreasonable searches and seizures; requires warrants based on probable cause; exclusionary rule (Mapp v. Ohio, 1961) — illegally obtained evidence excluded from trial; exceptions: good faith, inevitable discovery, plain view
• 5th Amendment — grand jury indictment for serious crimes; no double jeopardy; no self-incrimination; due process; just compensation for takings; Miranda v. Arizona (1966) — police must inform suspects of rights before custodial interrogation
• 6th Amendment — speedy and public trial; impartial jury; right to know charges; confront witnesses; compulsory process; right to counsel (Gideon v. Wainwright, 1963 — states must provide attorney to indigent defendants)
• 8th Amendment — no excessive bail/fines; no cruel and unusual punishment; death penalty cases: Furman v. Georgia (1972) — invalidated existing death penalty statutes; Gregg v. Georgia (1976) — reinstated with guided discretion; banned for juveniles (Roper v. Simmons, 2005) and intellectually disabled (Atkins v. Virginia, 2002)

Right to Privacy

• Not explicit in Constitution; derived from "penumbras" of Bill of Rights (Griswold) and 14th Amendment due process
• Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) — right to marital privacy; struck down contraception ban
• Roe v. Wade (1973) — right to abortion; trimester framework; overruled by Dobbs v. Jackson (2022)
• Lawrence v. Texas (2003) — struck down sodomy laws; privacy in intimate conduct
• Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) — 14th Amendment guarantees same-sex couples right to marry

Equal Protection & the 14th Amendment

• Equal Protection Clause — no state shall deny any person "equal protection of the laws"; basis for most civil rights law
• Rational basis test — law must be rationally related to a legitimate government interest; lowest scrutiny; most laws pass
• Intermediate scrutiny — law must be substantially related to an important government interest; applied to gender and sex discrimination
• Strict scrutiny — law must be narrowly tailored to serve a compelling government interest; applied to race, national origin, religion, fundamental rights; very few laws survive
• Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) — "separate but equal" upheld; validated Jim Crow segregation
• Brown v. Board of Education (1954) — "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal"; overruled Plessy; unanimous Warren Court decision

The Civil Rights Movement & Legislation

• Civil Rights Act of 1964 — banned discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin in public accommodations and employment; created EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission)
• Voting Rights Act of 1965 — banned racial discrimination in voting; outlawed literacy tests; provided federal oversight of states with history of discrimination; Shelby County v. Holder (2013) gutted the preclearance formula
• 24th Amendment (1964) — abolished poll taxes in federal elections
• 15th Amendment (1870) — right to vote cannot be denied based on race
• 19th Amendment (1920) — women's right to vote
• 26th Amendment (1971) — voting age lowered to 18
• Key movement figures: Martin Luther King Jr. (nonviolent civil disobedience), Rosa Parks (Montgomery Bus Boycott), Thurgood Marshall (NAACP Legal Defense Fund; first Black Supreme Court Justice)

Affirmative Action

• Policies that give preference to historically disadvantaged groups in employment, education, contracting
• Regents of UC v. Bakke (1978) — racial quotas unconstitutional; race can be "one factor" in admissions
• Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) — holistic race-conscious admissions constitutional (law school)
• Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard/UNC (2023) — race-conscious college admissions programs at Harvard and UNC unconstitutional; effectively ended affirmative action in higher education

Other Civil Rights Groups

• Women — Equal Pay Act (1963); Title IX (1972) — no sex discrimination in federally funded education; Reed v. Reed (1971) first case to apply equal protection to sex discrimination; intermediate scrutiny standard
• Persons with disabilities — Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990) — prohibits discrimination; requires reasonable accommodation in employment and public accommodations
• LGBTQ+ — Obergefell v. Hodges (2015) — right to same-sex marriage; Bostock v. Clayton County (2020) — Title VII protects against discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity
• Age — Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA, 1967) — protects workers 40+

Political Socialization

• Process by which people acquire political values, beliefs, and behaviors
• Family — strongest agent; party identification usually follows parents
• School — civic education, pledging allegiance; builds support for political system
• Peers — especially important in adolescence
• Media — increasing importance; shapes what issues people consider important
• Religion — shapes moral and policy views; evangelical Christians strongly Republican; Black Protestants strongly Democratic
• Race/ethnicity — strong predictor; Black Americans ~85–90% Democratic; Latino, Asian Americans lean Democratic but more variable

Public Opinion

• Public opinion — distribution of individual preferences about government, policies, or leaders across a population
• Polling — random sample surveys; margin of error; question wording matters enormously
• Political ideology — liberal (favor government action, social change, civil liberties) vs. conservative (favor limited government, traditional values, free market)
• Opinion formation — influenced by party ID, self-interest, values, elite cues, media framing
• Salience — how important an issue is to a person; high-salience issues drive voting
• Gender gap — women more Democratic than men; consistent pattern since 1980
• Generation gap — younger voters trend more liberal on social issues; shaped by their political era

Political Participation

• Forms: voting (most common), campaigning, contacting officials, protests, community organizing, running for office
• Who votes? — higher turnout: older, wealthier, more educated, homeowners, married, strong partisans; lower: young, poor, less educated, recent movers
• Rational ignorance — cost of becoming informed exceeds expected benefit for most voters; explains low information levels
• Political efficacy — internal: belief that one can understand and participate effectively; external: belief that government is responsive to citizens; both predict participation
• Civic republicanism vs. pluralism — civic: citizens have duty to participate; pluralist: competing groups represent interests adequately

Political Culture

• Widely shared values and beliefs about government and politics in the U.S.
• Core values: liberty (individual freedom), equality (of opportunity, not outcome), democracy, rule of law, individualism, free enterprise / capitalism
• Americans more individualistic than most democracies; more skeptical of government; stronger religious beliefs
• Alexis de Tocqueville (Democracy in America, 1835) — observed American exceptionalism: equality, civic participation, voluntary associations, local government